Crop Yield

Contribution to Yield.- 1.1 Inflorescence Development.- 1.1.1 Structure of the Barley Spike.- 1.1.2 Inflorescence Differentiation.- 1.1.3 Factors Affecting Apical Development.- 1.2 Yield Components.- 2 Tillering and Tiller Contribution to Grain Yield.- 2.1 Tillering.- 2.2 Tillering and Yield.- 2.3 Tillering: Hormonal Control and Plant Growth Regulators.- 3 Grain Filling.- 4 Carbon Metabolism.- 4.1 Photosynthesis and Radiation Use Efficiency.- 4.2 Water Use Efficiency.- 4.3 Harvest Index.- 4.4 Dry Matter Partitioning.- 5 Nitrogen Metabolism.- 5.1 Nitrogen Uptake.- 5.2 Nitrate and Nitrite Reductase Activity.- 5.3 Nitrogen Assimilation.- 5.4 Senescence.- 5.5 Amino Acid Translocation.- 5.6 Pattern of N Uptake.- 5.7 Grain Nitrogen.- 6 Protein Synthesis and Amino Acid Composition.- 7 Contribution of Preanthesis Carbon and Nitrogen to Yield.- 7.1 Retranslocation of Carbon During Grain Filling.- 7.2 Retranslocation of Nitrogen During Grain Filling.- 8 Phosphorus Uptake and Mycorrhizal Associations.- 9 Potassium Uptake.- 10 Plant Lodging and Growth Regulators.- 11 Conclusions.- References.- Rice.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Growth and Development.- 2.1 Vegetative Growth.- 2.2 Reproductive Growth.- 3 Photosynthesis and Dry-Matter Production.- 3.1 Leaf Photosynthetic Rate.- 3.2 Leaf Orientation.- 3.3 Leaf Area.- 3.4 Varietal Differences.- 4 Environmental Control of Growth and Yield.- 4.1 Rainfall.- 4.1.1 Drought.- 4.1.2 Submergence.- 4.1.2.1 Adaptation to Prolonged Submergence.- 4.1.2.2 Submergence Tolerance.- 4.2 Temperature.- 4.3 Light.- 4.4 CO2 Concentration.- 4.5 Relative Humidity and Wind Velocity.- 5 Yield Determining Processes.- 5.1 Storage of Assimilates.- 5.2 Determination of Yield Capacity.- 5.3 Partitioning and Translocation of Assimilates.- 5.4 Contribution of Pre- and Post-Flowering Carbohydrates to Grain Yield.- 5.5 Source-Sink Relationship.- 6 Analysis of Yield Components.- 6.1 Spikelet Number.- 6.2 Percentage of Filled Spikelets.- 6.3 Sterility.- 6.4 Grain Weight.- 7 Response to Cultural Factors.- 7.1 Method of Crop Establishment.- 7.2 Nitrogen Fertilization.- 8 Improving Yield Potential.- 8.1 Estimation of Yield Potential.- 8.2 Physiological Traits for Yield Improvement.- 8.2.1 Increasing Biomass Production.- 8.2.2 Increasing Harvest Index.- 8.2.2.1 Improving Sink Capacity.- 8.2.2.2 Improving Ripening Percentage.- 8.3 Yield Potential and Nitrogen Requirement.- 9 New Plant Types.- 9.1 Plant Type for Irrigated Ecosystems.- 9.1.1 Reduced Tillering and Large Panicles.- 9.1.2 Grain Size and High-Density Grains.- 9.1.3 Canopy and Leaf Characteristics.- 9.1.4 Short and Stiff Culm.- 9.1.5 Crop Growth Duration.- 9.2 Plant Types for Rain-Fed Ecosystems.- 9.3 Present Status of New-Plant Type Development.- 10 Hybrid Rice.- 11 Biotechnological Approaches.- 12 Future Directions.- References.- Physiology of Maize.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 History, Production, and Utilization.- 1.2 Taxonomy and Morphology.- 1.3 Agronomy and Physiology.- 2 Phenology.- 2.1 Phasic Development.- 2.2 Relative Maturity and Rate of Development.- 3 Dry Matter Accumulation.- 3.1 Incident Solar Radiation.- 3.2 Absorption of Solar Irradiance.- 3.2.1 Leaf Area Index.- 3.2.2 Canopy Extinction Coefficient.- 3.3 Radiation-Use Efficiency and Total Dry Matter Accumulation.- 4 Dry Matter Partitioning.- 4.1 General Source-Sink Relationships.- 4.2 Source Strength.- 4.3 Export from Leaves.- 4.4 Temporary Storage.- 4.5 Competing Demands for Nitrogen.- 5 Genetic Improvement.- References.- Leaf Expansion and Phenological Development: Key Determinants of Sunflower Plasticity, Growth and Yield.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Phenotypic Plasticity.- 2.1 Yield Responses to Winter Sowing.- 2.2 Yield Responses to Plant Population.- 3 Leaf Area.- 3.1 Leaf Area, Light Interception and Crop Growth.- 3.2 Leaf Area Components.- 3.3 Responses of Leaf Expansion to Water Availability.- 3.3.1 Growth and Water Relations of Plants in Controlled Environments.- 3.3.2 Leaf Expansion in Field-Grown Sunflower.- 3.4 Effects of Nitrogen on Growth and Development.- 3.4.1 Effects of Nitrogen on Leaf Area.- 3.4.2 Leaf Expansion Rate as Affected by Nitrogen Availability: Comparison with Rate of Photosynthesis.- 4 Phenological Development.- 4.1 Phenological Pattern and Yield.- 4.2 Physiological Basis and Modelling of Phenological Development.- 4.2.1 Sowing to Emergence.- 4.2.2 Emergence to Anthesis.- 4.2.3 Anthesis to Physiological Maturity.- 5 Conclusions.- References.- Cotton: Factors Associated with Assimilation Capacity, Flower Production, Boll Set, and Yield.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 General Characteristics of Yield.- 1.2 Relative Importance of Yield Components.- 2 Root and Canopy Development.- 2.1 Morphological Developmental Stages.- 2.2 Solar Radiation Interception.- 2.3 Canopy Architecture.- 3 CO2-Assimilation Capacity.- 3.1 Canopy CO2-Exchange Rate.- 3.2 Single-Leaf CO2-Exchange Rate.- 3.3 Fruiting-Form CO2-Exchange Rate.- 4 Fruiting-Form Formation.- 4.1 Floral Bud (Square) and Boll Retention.- 4.2 Physiology of Boll Retention/Shed.- 4.3 Flower Production and Yield.- 4.4 Fruit Loss and Yield Compensation.- 4.5 Importance of Fruiting Positions.- 5 Carbohydrate Metabolism and Utilization.- 5.1 Leaf Assimilate Physiology.- 5.2 Fiber Assimilate Physiology.- 6 Environmental Effects.- 6.1 Temperature.- 6.2 Nutrition.- 6.3 CO2-Enrichment and Yield.- 7 Monitoring and Management.- 7.1 Growth Regulators.- 7.2 Crop Termination.- 8 Breeding and Yield Physiology Research Challenges.- 8.1 Treatment and Genotype Comparisons.- 8.2 Management Intensity.- 9 Summary.- 10 Glossary of Cotton Yield Physiology Terms.- References.- Jute.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Seed: Viability and Germination.- 3 Seedling Growth and Initial Field Operations.- 4 Root System.- 5 Leaf Area, Light Interception and Canopy Photosynthesis.- 6 CO2 Metabolism and Carbon-Use Efficiency.- 7 Assimilate Translocation and Partitioning.- 8 Photoperiod and Flowering.- 9 Improvement of Jute Productivity: Problems and Prospects.- References.- Sugarcane.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Economic Importance.- 1.2 Botanical Description.- 1.3 Anatomy and Morphology.- 2 Growth and Yield Dynamics.- 2.1 Stand Establishment.- 2.2 Growth and Sugar Accumulation.- 3 Sucrose Synthesis and Partitioning.- 3.1 Photosynthesis.- 3.2 Translocation and Partitioning.- 3.3 Stem Anatomy and Sucrose Storage.- 3.4 Sucrose Metabolism.- 4 Conclusion: Prospects for Increasing Sucrose Yield.- References.- Sugar Beet.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Crop Establishment and Early Development.- 2.1 Seedling Establishment.- 2.2 Identifying Seed Vigour.- 2.3 Improving Seed Performance.- 2.4 Manipulating Seed Production.- 3 Leaf Growth and Development.- 4 Fibrous Root Development.- 4.1 Root Growth in the Soil.- 4.2 Root-to-Shoot Ratios.- 5 Growth and Development of the Storage Root.- 5.1 Anatomical Development of the Storage Root.- 5.2 Sucrose Accumulation.- 6 Photosynthesis and Growth.- 6.1 Carbon Fixation in the Leaf.- 6.2 Light and Photosynthesis.- 6.3 Modification of Photosynthetic Efficiency.- 7 Water Relations and Stress.- 7.1 Control of Water Uptake.- 7.2 Stress Tolerance.- 8 Assimilate Partitioning.- 8.1 Assimilate Movement in the Plant.- 8.2 Assimilate Storage in the Root.- 8.3 Modifying Sucrose Storage Capacity.- 9 Crop Growth and Sucrose Accumulation.- 10 Sugar Beet and Climate Change.- 11 Sugarbeet in the Future.- References.- Potato.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Basic Plan of the Potato Plant.- 3 Physiological Age and Growth Vigour.- 4 Interrelations Between Numbers of Component Plant Parts.- 5 The Process of Tuber Formation.- 6 Rate and Duration of Development Processes.- 7 Radiation Interception, Growth Rate and Total Dry Matter Production.- 8 Temperature and the Rate of Growth Processes.- 9 Dry Matter Distribution.- 10 Nitrogen Nutrition and Potato Production.- 11 Drought and Potato Production.- 12 Second Growth.- 13 Tuber Size Distribution.- References.- Cowpea.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Grain Yield in Optimal Environments.- 3 Grain Yield Under Drought.- 4 Photoperiod and Temperature Effects on Phenology and Responses to Stress.- 5 Conclusions.- References.- Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] Physiology and Symbiotic Dinitrogen Fixation.- 1 Origin and Introduction.- 2 Plant Development.- 2.1 Germination and Vegetative Stages.- 2.2 Reproductive Stage.- 3 Plant Physiology.- 3.1 Carbon Assimilation and Metabolism.- 3.2 Water Requirement and Water Stress.- 3.3 Mineral Nutrition and Metabolism.- 4 Symbiotic Dinitrogen Fixation.- 4.1 Dinitrogen Fixation.- 4.2 Nodule Formation.- 4.3 Recognition Between Symbiotic Partners.- 4.4 Biochemistry and Physiology.- 4.5 General Genetic Characteristics.- 4.6 Factors Affecting Soybean Dinitrogen Fixation.- References.- Physiological Control of Growth and Yield in White Clover.- 1 Growth Form of White Clover.- 1.1 Clonal Growth.- 1.2 Exceptions to Clonal Growth.- 1.3 Plagiotropic Habit.- 1.4 Flowering.- 2 Physiological Control of Growth.- 2.1 Environmental Effects.- 2.1.1 Temperature.- 2.1.2 Light.- 2.1.3 Nutrients.- 2.1.4 Nitrogen Fixation.- 2.1.5 Moisture.- 2.1.6 Physical Impedance.- 2.1.7 Defoliation.- 2.1.8 Biotic Influences.- 2.1.9 Ozone and Ultraviolet Light.- 2.1.10 Carbon Dioxide Concentration.- 2.2 Correlative Effects.- 2.2.1 Age of Phytomer.- 2.2.2 Presence of Root, Leaf, Flower or Branch at a Phytomer.- 2.2.3 Genotype.- References.- Physiological Control of Alfalfa Growth and Yield.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Alfalfa Yield Component Analysis.- 3 Factors Influencing Alfalfa Yield Components.- 3.1 Alfalfa Persistence.- 3.2 Mass per Shoot.- 3.3 Shoots per Plant.- 4 Conclusions and Future Prospects.- References.- Physiological Control of Forage Grass Yield and Growth.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Dynamic Models.- 2.1 Probability.- 2.2 Extended Probability.- 2.3 Phenomenological.- 3 Seasonal Models.- 3.1 Logistic.- 3.2 Extended Logistic.- 3.3 Multiple Logistic.- 3.4 Extended Multiple Logistic.- 3.5 Harvest Interval and Water Availability.- 4 Examples.- 4.1 Warm-Season Perennial.- 4.2 Warm-Season Annual.- 4.3 Cool-Season Annual.- 4.4 Harvest Interval.- 5 Summary.- References.